As Indian cities search for ways to cope with rising temperatures, water shortages and increasingly erratic rainfall, one solution lies hidden underground.
Across the dry landscapes of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Delhi, and parts of central India stand thousands of stepwells, known locally as vavs, baolis and baoris. Today, many are visited as heritage monuments. But when they were built centuries ago, they served a much more practical purpose.
They collected water, stored it through long summers, helped recharge groundwater and created naturally cool spaces where people could escape extreme heat. Long before terms like climate adaptation and sustainable design entered public conversations, communities across India had already developed systems that addressed many of the same challenges.
Built for a land of uncertain rainfall
Stepwells originated in regions where rainfall arrived only during a short monsoon season. These structures were designed to provide access to groundwater through a series of descending steps, allowing people to reach water even as levels fluctuated throughout the year.
Stepwells originated in regions where rainfall arrived only during a short monsoon season. Photograph: (BBC)
Unlike conventional wells, stepwells were expansive underground structures. Flights of stone steps led people deeper into the earth, making sure that water remained accessible during dry months when groundwater levels fell.
In areas prone to drought, this was not merely convenient infrastructure. It was essential for survival.
By tapping into underground aquifers and storing water close to communities, stepwells helped settlements sustain long periods without rain.
Nature’s own cooling system
The ingenuity of stepwells extended beyond water management.
A visitor descending into a stepwell would experience a noticeable drop in temperature. Thick stone walls, shaded corridors and underground chambers protected the interiors from direct sunlight. The presence of water further improved cooling through evaporation.
A study published in Frontiers of Architectural Research found that medieval Indian stepwells incorporated several passive cooling strategies. Their depth below ground, architectural form and relationship with water helped create particularly cooler environments than the surrounding landscape.
Centuries before electric cooling systems existed, these structures offered relief from intense summer heat using only natural principles.
For travellers, traders and residents, stepwells acted as welcome refuges during the hottest months of the year.
More than just water reservoirs
Stepwells were never designed solely as engineering structures.
They also functioned as community spaces where people gathered, rested and interacted. Women collecting water met neighbours, travellers paused during long journeys and religious ceremonies were usually held within these spaces.
Over time, many stepwells became architectural masterpieces adorned with pillars, carvings and sculptures. Their beauty reflected the importance of water in everyday life.
One of the most celebrated examples is Rani-ki-Vav in Gujarat. Built in the 11th century, the stepwell is recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is widely regarded as one of the finest surviving examples of subterranean water architecture.
Unlike conventional wells, stepwells were expansive underground structures. Photograph: (TripSavvy)
The forgotten science of groundwater charge
Modern cities often struggle to retain rainwater. During heavy showers, water rushes into drains and is soon carried away, leaving little opportunity for groundwater replenishment.
Traditional stepwells worked differently.
Their design slowed the movement of water and encouraged it to seep into the surrounding soil. This process helped recharge aquifers and maintain groundwater reserves over time.
While historical builders may not have used terms such as aquifer management or water resilience, their structures performed many of the same functions that contemporary planners seek to achieve through modern water-sensitive urban design.
In effect, stepwells formed part of a decentralised water management system that worked with the landscape rather than against it.
Why stepwells matter today
India is experiencing increasingly frequent heatwaves, declining groundwater levels and growing pressure on water resources. As these challenges intensify, architects, conservationists and urban planners are looking once again at traditional systems for inspiration.
Stepwells offer valuable lessons in designing for local climates. They prove how buildings can reduce heat naturally, how rainwater can be retained within communities and how water infrastructure can serve both practical and social purposes.
Restoring stepwells alone will not solve modern water challenges. The scale of today’s urban demands is vastly different from that of medieval settlements.
Though centuries old, these structures continue to offer valuable lessons in harvesting water locally, replenishing groundwater, and creating built environments that align with natural systems.
The ingenuity of stepwells extended beyond water management. Photograph: (Quartz)
Ancient wisdom for a warming world
The story of India’s stepwells is not only one of architectural beauty or historical curiosity.
It is a reminder that communities have long adapted to difficult climates through observation, innovation and careful use of local resources.
At a time when cities around the world are searching for sustainable ways to manage heat and water, these centuries-old structures reveal that some of the most effective climate solutions were conceived long before the modern climate crisis began. Hidden beneath the ground, the stepwells continue to offer lessons for the future.
